This Code of Welfare encourages all those responsible for animals held by zoos to adopt the highest standards of husbandry, care and handling, and to equal or exceed the minimum standards.
Anyone who is responsible for the welfare of animals (including wild animals held for rehabilitation) in zoos (including animal parks and aquariums) needs to be aware of any relevant codes of welfare and comply with the minimum standards in the codes and the general provisions of the Animal Welfare Act 1999.
The purpose of this Code is to provide information to the owners and persons in charge of animals (including wild animals held for rehabilitation) held by zoos (including animal parks and aquariums) about the standards they must achieve in order to meet their obligations under the Animal Welfare Act 1999.
This Code of Welfare encourages all those responsible for animals held by zoos to adopt the highest standards of husbandry, care and handling, and to equal or exceed the minimum standards.
Adequately maintaining the welfare of zoo animals requires experience, training and the observance of high standards.
The Animal Welfare Act 1999 provides for the welfare of animals in New Zealand. It puts obligations on people who own or are in charge of animals to provide for the welfare of their animals.
The Act establishes the fundamental obligations relating to the care of animals and provides for the development and issue of codes of welfare.
Codes of welfare expand on the basic obligations of the Act by setting minimum standards and recommending best practice for the care and management of animals.
This Code of Welfare also references regulations issued under the Animal Welfare Act 1999. Regulations are prescribed under the Animal Welfare Act and impose enforceable requirements on owners and persons in charge of animals. For ease of reference, regulations relevant to this Code are set out in an appendix to this Code. Penalties for failure to comply with the regulations are specified in the relevant regulations. The appendix to this Code is not intended to provide an exhaustive list of all obligations under the Act or regulatory requirements. Owners and persons in charge of animals are responsible for ensuring that they are aware of and understand all Act and regulatory requirements that are relevant to them including all applicable Codes of Welfare.
Note that the Act sets criteria for whether a procedure carried out on an animal is a significant surgical procedure. Only a veterinarian, or a person who is acting under the direct supervision of a veterinarian and who is a student undergoing his or her training to become a veterinarian, are able to perform a significant surgical procedure, unless a regulation says otherwise.
This Code of Welfare is intended for all persons responsible for the welfare of animals held by zoos.
Under the Act the "owner" and every "person in charge" of an animal are responsible for meeting the legal obligations for the welfare of animals under their care.
For zoo animals, the owner of the animals places them in the care of others who become the persons in charge, but this does not derogate from their responsibility to ensure that the requirements of the Act and animal welfare regulations are met.
Who should read this Code of Welfare amended on 9 May 2021 by Notice in the Gazette 2021-go1589
Failure to meet a minimum standard in this Code may be used as evidence to support a prosecution for an offence under the Act. A person who is charged with an offence against the Act can defend him or herself by showing that he or she has equalled or exceeded the minimum standards in this Code.
Some codes of welfare include information and example indicators for each minimum standard. The list of indicators is not exhaustive but is given to provide guidance on ways in which a minimum standard may be met.
Owners and persons in charge of animals are not required to comply with the recommendations for best practice in this Code but are encouraged to do so to provide higher standards of welfare.
This Code does not provide an exhaustive list of the Act’s requirements, and owners and those in charge of animals should note that they must comply with the minimum standards in this Code and the general provisions of the Act, and any regulations issued under the Act.
Animal Welfare Act 1999 – New Zealand Legislation
Legislative background amended on 9 May 2021 by Notice in the Gazette 2021-go1589
Further detail on species-specific requirements for animals are covered in relevant codes of welfare for pigs, sheep, cattle, llama and alpaca, horses, goats and other animals. Other codes of welfare should be consulted where appropriate.
Codes of welfare must be accompanied by a report that sets out the deliberations that the National Animal Welfare Advisory Committee (NAWAC) undertook when developing the codes of welfare including the standards and recommendations for best practice, the nature of any significant differences of opinion during drafting and consultation, and any matters that should be dealt with by regulation. Code reports can be accessed online.
Report on the zoo code [PDF, 60 KB]
Although efforts to include relevant regulations within this Code have been made, there may be other regulations which are relevant to you. The full list of all Animal Welfare regulations should be consulted where appropriate.
Animal Welfare (Care and Procedures) Regulations 2018 – New Zealand Legislation
This Code applies to all persons responsible for the welfare of animals (including wild animals held for rehabilitation) held by zoos (including animal parks and aquariums). For the purposes of this Code, a zoo also includes a containment facility approved under the Biosecurity Act 1993 for the purpose of holding animals in containment. Due to the wide range of species held in New Zealand in these facilities, the code does not attempt to cover individual species, rather it establishes minimum standards and recommended best practices which will apply to any species kept. It is for the operator of those facilities to apply those minimum standards and recommended best practices to each individual species.
Refer to Schedule I: Interpretation and definitions.
The health and welfare of animals in a zoo is dependent on both their physical and social environments, and on the level of human care. The relationship between animals and their keepers is instrumental in maintaining optimum health and well-being.
The welfare needs of a particular animal or group of animals should be assessed based on an understanding of the species in the context of its natural history and its captive husbandry, and on the needs and experiences of the individuals exhibited. Each animal has requirements by virtue of its species, genotype, age, sex, social group, and its physical, health and behavioural needs. All these factors must be taken into account when designing and constructing facilities to hold, exhibit and transport them.
The requirements of the animal should be matched, as far as practicable, with those of natural populations. In addition, any further requirements necessitated by the special compromises and enhancements to animal welfare resulting from holding and exhibiting the animals, must be considered.
Attention must be given to:
Standards and ethics in the zoo industry are evolving and it is inevitable that operators and animal keepers will encounter circumstances that are not specifically provided for in this Code. It is essential that common sense should prevail and that previous experience with animals should be utilised to the fullest extent so that animals are handled humanely, and their welfare is considered foremost. Operators and keepers have a responsibility for the health, welfare and considerate treatment of the animals under their control.
The operator is responsible for the welfare of the animals and ensuring the orderly and proper operation of the exhibited animal collection and for compliance with the minimum standards of this Code. Whilst these duties may not necessarily be performed directly by the operator (keepers having responsibility for the day-to-day care of animals in their charge), it is incumbent upon the operator to ensure that staff are adequately trained and performing their duties in this regard.
*It is NAWAC’s expectation that when the current Code is reviewed, this Recommended Best Practice will be considered for inclusion as a Minimum Standard.
The operator has to ensure that animals are protected from injury by appropriately designed facilities, supervision by trained staff and high standards of management.
The operator has to consult fully and keep up-to-date information on the physical, physiological and psychological needs of the individuals and species held.
The operator has to ensure that appropriate arrangements are made for the provision and storage of good quality feed for all classes of animals held and that the supply will be continuous to the facility. In the event that one supplier is unable to meet their commitment, a suitable alternative supplier should be identified and contracted.
Groups such as the Zoo and Aquarium Association (ZAA) can be consulted for help in compiling a zoographic policy.
The frequency and level of inspection by animal keepers should be related to the needs of the species although a minimum daily inspection is required.
More frequent inspections may be required, e.g. during adverse weather, during outbreaks of diseases, or where an animal is recovering from ill-health or an injury, when different individuals or groups of animals or species have been mixed, when the environment or management of the animals has been changed, or when there is increased public interest in an exhibit.
A minimum of a daily check must be made of all animals except where –
Where daily physical inspection of a species is difficult, less disturbing or invasive means of inspection (e.g. closed-circuit television) should be implemented.
In taking in or breeding additional animals operators are making a commitment to those animals for their future management.
When zoo animals are being transferred to other zoos within New Zealand (new organisms will need approval from the Environmental Protection Authority) all welfare provisions of this Code apply.
Marine mammal display operators should be aware of, and comply with, the additional constraints imposed by the Marine Mammals Protection Act 1978. A marine mammal must not be taken from the wild unless a permit has been obtained from the Director-General of Conservation.
Additional limitations are placed on obtaining, selling and moving animals classified as endangered, threatened, or exploited species under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna 1973 (CITES), which is provided for in the Trade in Endangered Species Act 1989. Other restrictions may be imposed by the Wildlife Act 1953 and the Conservation Act 1987.
Animals should be transported internationally in accordance with the International Air Transport Association (IATA) Live Animals Regulations.
Acquisition and disposal of animals can cause significant distress through separation of animals from their social groups, families, or familiar environment, subjecting them to a wide range of novel situations. The movement or transfer of:
should only occur in exceptional circumstances or where such movement or transfer can be shown to be in the best interests of the species, the individual animal or larger social group to which that animal belongs. Where such a transfer takes place steps should be taken to mitigate the harm and minimise the likely distress caused. In order to minimise likely distress every attempt should be made to move, transfer or acquire highly social animals in groups or pairs.
The care of zoo animals requires both experience and the observance of high standards.
Staff should be familiar with the following:
This Code establishes minimum standards of care for zoo animals and is intended to encourage all owners and persons in charge of them to adopt the highest standard of husbandry, care and handling, based on the recommended best practices. While this Code is based on current knowledge and technology available at the time of issue, it does not replace the need for experience and common sense in the handling of these animals.
The importance of good animal handling and training cannot be over-emphasised. Those responsible for the care of zoo animals should be competent and well trained. Personnel should be appropriately instructed in the care and maintenance of animals and how their actions may affect the animals’ welfare. Knowledge of the normal appearance and behaviour of each species is essential for their health and welfare. It is important that those in charge of zoo animals should be able to recognise early signs of distress or disease so that prompt action is taken, or advice sought.
Owners or persons in charge of zoo animals should ensure that their personnel have either the relevant knowledge and training or appropriate supervision to ensure that the health and welfare needs of the animals in their care are met. Personnel should undergo training either formally or on the job by experienced supervisors. Handling techniques should be included as written procedures in the quality assurance system, which should be easily accessible to all personnel.
Any contract or temporary staff should be trained and competent in the relevant activity.
Quality assurance programmes should emphasise the importance of training of personnel.
Staff should have significant and appropriate animal experience or complete a formal training programme, such as the National Certificate in Captive Wild Animals or its equivalent.
Effective hygiene is essential for health reasons. This is especially important for animals housed at high environmental temperatures and in humid conditions, such as amphibians and reptiles. While effluent is usually cleared every day, in certain circumstances (e.g. a cheetah queen giving birth where disturbance can result in rejection of the cubs or even infanticide) deep litter may be provided as an alternative.
Special attention should be given to the design of enclosures, facilities, housing and equipment to ensure they are able to be effectively and safely cleaned regularly.
A high standard of hygiene, cleanliness and tidiness should be maintained in all animal enclosures and accommodation.
Suitable cleaning agents should be available and care should be taken to prevent their residues harming the animals.
Service facilities should allow a high standard of hygiene to be maintained without unduly distressing the animals.
Staff should be instructed to observe strict standards of personal hygiene and to conform to good hygiene practice, especially in the preparation of food, and treatment of diseased animals. Staff should also have regard to the risk of cross-contamination from equipment and surfaces and also be aware of the potential for zoonoses (diseases spread between animals and humans).
To ensure the future of an animal population, or to avoid the problems of surplus animals for which there is no satisfactory future, the operator is responsible for ensuring that animals in their collection breed on a planned basis. See summary of regulations appended to this Code:
Introduction amended on 9 May 2021 by Notice in the Gazette 2021-go1589
The breeding of animals must be managed so as to prevent overpopulation or overcrowding resulting in unnecessary pain and distress.
Breeding of each animal or animal group should be managed in a way that is consistent with the long-term welfare of the animal and with this Code. With regard to special breeding programmes, ZAA should be consulted. In the case of New Zealand native species, the recommendations of the ZAA Species Co- ordinator should be followed and permission from the Department of Conservation may be required (check permit conditions).
Animals of different taxonomic groups (e.g. sub-species) should not normally be allowed to inter-breed. Where practised, it should not compromise the genetic integrity of the animals within a managed conservation breeding programme.
Animals should receive a daily diet in adequate quantities and containing adequate nutrients to meet their requirements for good health and welfare.
When considering the amount of food, nutrients and water animals require, a number of factors need to be taken into account:
Due to the above factors and the considerable variation that occurs between individual animals, food and nutrient requirements vary from one individual to another. The appropriate level of feeding will be best determined by monitoring the body condition of the zoo animals, and feeding accordingly, rather than feeding a pre-determined level of feed.
Although adequate feed is required to maintain body weight and health, obesity inappropriate for the species may be undesirable and harmful and thus overfeeding should not be encouraged.
Where feeding of animals by visitors is appropriate, only suitable food should be used and such feeding should be managed in such a way that over-feeding is avoided.
Food should be wholesome and palatable and prepared and stored in a manner which preserves or enhances its quality.
Food supplements (e.g. vitamin D for animals held behind glass) should be handled, stored and rotated in a way that minimises nutritional loss. Perishable food should be stored refrigerated and frozen food stored at -18°C or below.
Food should not include potentially toxic or infectious substances such as herbicides, pesticides, diseases, parasites, infectious agents, euthanasing chemicals, lead shot or other contaminants where it is likely to cause harm to the animal consuming it.
The operator and keeper should have a good understanding of the appropriate manner of presentation of food and the composition of diets appropriate to the classes of animals held and how these might vary under different circumstances (e.g. changes in exercise, age, health and reproductive status).
Any preparation or storage of food and water should be undertaken in clean areas and on or using easily cleaned materials and utensils.
Animals in zoos need to be held and exhibited in an environment in keeping with their physical, health and behavioural needs, and as far as possible in keeping with their natural or ecological habitats.
Each animal of the species that is held and exhibited has special needs and requirements that should be taken into account when designing and constructing facilities to hold, display and transport them. Enclosure environments should replicate or mimic the natural habitat, e.g.
Size and accommodation requirements vary with the management regime for each animal. Overcrowding may lead to distress, fighting and undue competition for food and water. Therefore, the enclosure size, especially any cage, should be large and the utilisation of the area or volume maximised by providing access to different levels through the use of climbing frames, shelves, mezzanine floors, etc.
Accommodation should aim to promote normal behaviour within the social group and reduce boredom, aggression and/or stereotypic behaviour.
Structures within the enclosure, such as hides, pools, plants etc, should be used to provide different microclimates for animals. Zoo operators should keep up to date with relevant scientific studies and experiments to provide optimum environments for different species.
The operator has to ensure that consideration is given to the following factors when animal accommodation is designed, constructed and maintained:
The floor surface should be consistent with the need for grip of the terrestrial animal bearing in mind the wear and potential for damage to hooves, pads, digits or claws.
The operator should ensure that consideration is given to the following factors when animals’ social environments are designed, implemented and maintained:
Animals have to be protected through the provision of animal handling facilities appropriate to the species being handled. These facilities should be effective and well maintained.
See summary of regulations appended to this Code:
Those lighting fires in the vicinity of animals should consider the effects on the animals.
Under prevailing conditions in New Zealand, many animals, e.g. non-indigenous reptiles and amphibians, some species of penguins, etc., may require a controlled environment or access to a larger controlled climate space, heat pads, basking lamps, or artificial ventilation etc. Some species may acclimatise to or be comfortable in the prevailing conditions during periods of appropriate weather.
In those species where off-exhibit holding facilities (including treatment rooms and night quarters) are employed, the animals should be able to be moved between exhibit and holding facilities without causing undue distress.
Animals in zoos may have their behaviour restricted by their environment and/or their management. In such circumstances, provision for the animals to remain physically active and psychologically stimulated is crucial to their health and well-being. The intelligence of some animals, e.g. primates, also means that they need constant stimulation or sources of mental stimuli otherwise they become bored and frustrated and may display abnormal behaviour patterns or stereotypic behaviours. These may include excessive grooming, hair pulling, repetitive pacing, running, jumping, rocking, social withdrawal, self-mutilation or infanticide.
Exercise, either self-regulated or controlled by a keeper, and behavioural and environmental enrichment help provide for the psychological needs of animals in restricted or confined environments and are an essential part of animals’ welfare.
Enrichment can include altering:
Zoos operators should aim to provide behaviourally sound environments for animals by taking the following factors into account:
Some species in zoos are more prone than others to having their behaviour restricted by confinement. Particular attention has to be given to the welfare of the following animals:
Possible indicators of distress in animals include:
Mixing of individuals and different species should be carefully considered as some individuals and species may be aggressive or territorial.
See summary of regulations appended to this Code:
The importance of competent animal handling cannot be over-emphasised. A skilled animal keeper needs to understand the full range of normal behaviour so that abnormal behaviour and signs of illness, injury, distress and nutritional disorders can be recognised and prompt, appropriate, remedial action taken.
An animal in good health is usually active, moves freely, eats and drinks well, has clear eyes and nose, clean skin, coat or feathers and is in good bodily condition.
An animal suffering from ill-health may show some of the following symptoms:
The most important factor for successful diagnosis and treatment is the early detection of abnormalities by the animal care staff. Regular weighing, where feasible, can provide important information about animal health. In the event that ill health is reported it is the operator’s responsibility to ensure that appropriate action is taken.
In all animal collections, some injuries and illnesses are inevitable. Therefore consideration needs to be given to the handling and treatment of such animals, including facilities for providing first aid, isolation, veterinary examination and treatment, and convalescence and recuperation.
Provision should be made for minimising the spread of communicable pathogens by having separate facilities, feeding and watering systems for infected animals.
A veterinarian should be consulted within 24 hours of the operator becoming aware of symptoms of ill-health including: marked lameness or injury that has not responded to normal first aid treatment; signs of infection; persistent signs of respiratory conditions; sustained loss of appetite; persistent weight loss; skin conditions that have not responded to treatment; and chronic diarrhoea or constipation.
There should be systems for regular review of clinical, behavioural and pathological records and mortality, and husbandry and preventative medical practices should be reviewed where problems become apparent.
Preventative health management programmes covering disease, injury and parasite control, appropriate to each species should be in place and documented.
Animals that die should be subject to post-mortem inspection in accordance with veterinary advice. Infected tissue samples taken for diagnosis must be stored safely so that animals, persons and animal feed and water are not at risk of contamination.
The Animal Welfare Act 1999 sets criteria for whether a procedure carried out on an animal is a significant surgical procedure. The criteria are set out in Section 16 of the Act.
If any person has to determine whether a procedure carried out on an animal is a significant surgical procedure under this Act, the person must determine the question by considering the following criteria:
Only a veterinarian, or a person who is acting under the direct supervision of a veterinarian and who is a student undergoing his or her training to become a veterinarian, are able to perform a significant surgical procedure, unless a regulation says otherwise.
Note that not all of the surgical procedures included within these regulations meet the criteria of a significant surgical procedure, some have been regulated for clarity only.
Animal Welfare (Care and Procedures) Regulations 2018 – New Zealand Legislation
Significant Surgical Procedures inserted on 9 May 2021 by Notice in the Gazette 2021-go1589
Wild animals are often accommodated in zoos for a period of rest or recovery from injury or illness in order to rehabilitate them for return to their natural habitat.
The Department of Conservation and ZAA should be consulted when native species are being rehabilitated.
Part 7 renumbered on 9 May 2021 by Notice in the Gazette 2021-go1589
Special care needs to be taken in transporting zoo animals. Where transport guidelines exist they should be consulted, or where a regulation on transporting zoo animals exists, it must be complied with, otherwise transport should generally be in accordance with the Code of Welfare: Transport of Animals within New Zealand. Where appropriate the conditions and facilities as required by the International Air Transport Association (IATA) for the transport of animals should be followed.
See summary of regulations appended to this Code:
Part 8 renumbered on 9 May 2021 by Notice in the Gazette 2021-go1589
Transport accommodation, feeding, watering and rest requirements should be specifically designed for the species being carried.
Euthanasia in some situations can be a necessary management tool to ensure the welfare of individual animals or groups of animals within an animal collection.
It may be warranted:
It may be warranted, as a last resort, when attempts to find a satisfactory alternative solution have failed:
Part 9 renumbered on 9 May 2021 by Notice in the Gazette 2021-go1589
The maintenance of good records is an integral part of a quality assurance system and good animal management.
Care should be taken when using individual marking or tagging of animals.
As external methods of tagging have a potential for causing injury, the subcutaneous insertion of a radio frequency identification device (RFID) or microchip may be a preferred option. RFIDs should conform to ISO Standard 11784 and 11785.
Part 10 renumbered on 9 May 2021 by Notice in the Gazette 2021-go1589
The Animal Welfare Act 1999.
As defined in the Act:
A zoo which has predominantly outdoor exhibits, mainly non-exotic and farm animals.
A collection of aquatic animals that is open to the public, but does not include a fish tank kept on private premises or where the display of a fish tank is not a core part of normal business.
The Act does not define "available technology". NAWAC takes "available technology" to represent, for example, existing chemicals, drugs, instruments, devices and facilities which are used practically to care for and manage animals.
An animal living in a dark place such as a hole, cave, under stones or in a tree trunk or with colouration giving it camouflage or protective resemblance to some part of the environment.
An activity which is performed in a situation which appears to the observer not to be in the context in which it would normally occur. It is usually seen when an animal is prevented or thwarted in some way from carrying out a specific behaviour.
Providing captive animals with cognitive challenges, allow opportunities for appropriate social interaction and exploration, give animals some control over their environment, and meet species-specific behavioural needs, through the provision of shelter, and opportunities for hiding, foraging and exercise.
Any species which are not domestic, companion or farm animals, and have not been approved for general release under the Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act 1996 but must remain in permanent containment (these animals are also known as ‘new organisms’ under the Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act).
The words "food" and "feed" are used interchangeably.
The Act does not define "good practice". NAWAC takes "good practice" to mean a standard of care that has a general level of acceptance among knowledgeable practitioners and experts in the field; is based on good sense and sound judgement; is practical and thorough; has robust experiential or scientific foundations; and prevents unreasonable or unnecessary harm to, or promotes the interests of, the animals to which it is applied. Good practice also takes account of the evolution of attitudes about animals and their care.
A person who has direct charge of an animal or group of animals. The keeper is deemed to be the person in charge of the animal.
Minimum standards are identified in the text by a heading and use the word "must" or similar words. They are highlighted in boxes within the text.
An animal or species which can only legally be held in a containment facility, such as a zoo.
The person who has overall responsibility for the zoo.
Any non-human member of the family Hominidae, being a gorilla, chimpanzee, bonobo, or orang-utan.
The period of time per day that an organism is exposed to daylight (or artificial light) which in turn affects physiological functions such as reproduction, hibernation, shedding of hair.
Altering of the outer part of a bird’s wing, usually the flight feathers but sometimes the muscle, tendon or bone, to prevent flight.
All non-human animals in the Primate order including lemurs, apes and monkeys.
The best practice agreed at a particular time, following consideration of scientific information, accumulated experience and public submissions on the code. It is usually a higher standard of practice than the minimum standard, except where the minimum standard is best practice. It is a practice that can be varied as new information comes to light.
Recommendations for best practice will be particularly appropriate where it is desirable to promote or encourage better care for animals than is provided as a minimum standard.
Recommended best practices are identified by a heading and, generally, use the term "should".
The Act does not define "scientific knowledge". NAWAC takes "scientific knowledge", relevant to its areas of responsibility, to mean knowledge within animal-based scientific disciplines, especially those that deal with nutritional, environmental, health, behavioural and cognitive/neural functions, which are relevant to understanding the physical, health and behavioural needs of animals. Such knowledge is not haphazard or anecdotal; it is generated by rigorous and systematic application of the scientific method, and the results are objectively and critically reviewed before acceptance.
A sequence of movements that is repeated several times with little or no variation and which has no obvious purpose.
The Australasian Zoo and Aquarium Association.
A site on which animals are kept for public exhibition, education, conservation, research or entertainment and usually will hold a range of exotic (new organisms), domestic and native species. For the purposes of this Code, a zoo also includes a containment facility approved under the Biosecurity Act 1993 for the purpose of holding animals in containment, and includes animal parks and aquariums.
This Appendix is not part of the Code of Welfare but is included as a reference.
Although efforts to include relevant regulations within this Code have been made, there may be other regulations which are relevant to you. The full list of all animal welfare regulations should be consulted where appropriate.
Animal Welfare (Care and Procedures) Regulations 2018 – New Zealand Legislation
In these regulations, unless the context otherwise requires,—
Regulations 33(1), 35(2), and 38 to 43 do not apply to transporters.
Appendix replaced on 9 May 2021 by Notice in the Gazette 2021-go1589
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